The capability approach motivates us to look beyond simple human capital style measures of education outcomes as it recognises that knowledge bestows a range of non-pecuniary benefits. For example, a year of schooling is a problematic unit for measuring education, as it does not reflect the quality or content of what was learnt in that year (Ferreira and Gignoux, 2013). This domain also captures outcomes which reflect the extent to which individuals are fulfilled and stimulated intellectually, including being creative. Expanding educational capability can enhance the quality of life for individuals by enabling them to participate in activities such as reading a book or enjoying an art exhibition, which brings ‘intrinsic pleasure’ (OECD, 2011).

This domain covers inequalities in education capabilities over the life-course, from early development through to adulthood, through proxy measures of participation, access and attainment (achieved functionings) and knowledge. The domain includes measures of basic skills and low levels of educational attainment (including lack of educational qualifications) but also measures of high attainment, unequal access to elite education opportunities, and information and communication technology skills.

The domain covers the preparedness of young children set to enter the formal education system to measure differences between children in terms of their position to benefit fully and equally from formal schooling. Research has affirmed the significance of early childhood development for future health, behaviour and learning (Shonkoff and Ricther, 2013). The early years are critical as the brain develops most rapidly in the first few years of a child’s life. Nurturing care, as well as adequate nutrition and a safe environment, are all necessary elements that allow for healthy cognitive development, and contribute to the school readiness of young children.

The unequal treatment of pupils within schools, including bullying from other children and ill treatment by teachers can be important determinants of education outcomes and such experiences can have a long term negative impact on attitudes to learning and outcomes in adulthood (Wolke and Lereya, 2015). The domain also looks beyond schooling to include lifelong learning and knowledge required to participate in society; including technological skills; skills related to accessing information held on the internet and the skills to distinguish between information of differing quality.

The capability approach recognises human diversity both in terms of resources (this may be innate ability) and in terms of diversity in tastes and preferences, and individual choice (Sen, 1992). It is important to understand education and learning inequalities which are driven by differences in the ability of individuals to convert resources into outcomes rather than simply looking at inequalities in outcomes.

Autonomy to choose (agency) is more complex in this than in many other domains as parents typically make choices on behalf of their children. As Walker (2006) notes, education plays a critical role in the development of adult capabilities across a number of spheres. This therefore provides some conflict between valuing children’s freedom to choose whether or not to attend school and the freedoms they will have in their adult lives; a child may, given the choice, decide not to attend school without fully comprehending that this will reduce their opportunities in adult life and lead to restricted future individual freedoms and agency. Furthermore, improving education within society also facilitates greater democracy and enables disadvantaged groups to 'increase their ability to resist inequalities and get a fairer deal in and through education' (Vaughan and Walker, 2012).

References and selected readings

Antoninis, M., Delprato, M. and Benavot, A. (2016) ‘Inequality in education: the challenge of measurement’ in ISSC, IDS and UNESCO, World Social Science Report 2016, Challenging Inequalities: Pathways to a Just World, UNESCO Publishing, Paris

Ferreira, F.H.G., and Gignoux, J. (2013). ‘The Measurement of Educational Inequality: Achievement and Opportunity’, The World Bank Economic Review, 28 (2) 210-246. DOI: 10.1093/wber/lht004

ISCED (2011). International Standard Classification of Education 2011, Canada: UNESCO Institute for Statistics

OECD (2011). Education at a Glance 2011, Paris: OECD

Shonkoff, J. P. and Ricther, L. (2013) The powerful reach of early childhood development: a science-based foundation for sound investment. In Britto PR, Engle PL, Super CS (eds.) Handbook of Early Childhood Development Research and its Impact on Global Policy. New York: Oxford University Press, 1-23

Vaughan, R., and Walker, M. (2012). ‘Capabilities, values and education policy’, Journal of Human Development and Capabilities, 13 (3) pp. 495-512

Walker, M. (2006). ‘Towards a capability-based theory of social justice for education policy-making’, Journal of Education Policy, 21, 2, pp. 163-185

Wolff, J. and De-Shalit, A. (2007). Disadvantage, New York: Oxford University Press

Wolke, D., and Lereya, S. T. (2015). ‘Long-term effects of bullying’, Archives of Disease in Childhood, 100(9), 879–885. DOI: 10.1136/archdischild-2014-306667